Spain’s Crucial Role in the American Revolution
Spain’s role in the American Revolution has been understated in the history of the United States. This document provides information on the substantial but lesser-known role that Spain had in our independence. The information comes from published works by researchers that accessed original (or transcriptions of) historical documents in the U.S., Spain, France and other countries. This document is narrow in its focus as Spain’s involvement spurred actions and support for the American cause goes beyond what is listed here.
Every attempt was made not to inject editorial or personal opinions rather this is a summary of the research that has been published on this topic.
Nothing in this document is meant to devalue the contribution of France or other countries to our Revolutionary War effort. The support of France was immense. Both France and Spain worked together to support the American Revolution and without their support the outcome of the Revolutionary War would have likely been quite different.
Why is this not Better Known?
There are at least two major reasons why the Spanish role is not as well-known as it deserves and does not seem to be a classroom topic.
- Spain did not want their role known until the latter stages of the Revolutionary War. They hid their support by funneling money and supplies through a private company that they, and the French, created for that sole purpose. Because of this, very little was published about Spanish support during the period.
- The direct military actions supported and conducted by Spain were in sparsely populated areas that had few, if any newspapers or writers. Most military actions were small with a limited number of witnesses. The numerous small actions played a significant role in the American war effort.
Background
- In 1762, under the “Treaty of Fontainebleau”, France ceded “French Louisiana” to Spain. By 1763 Spain occupied much of the new French Louisiana and was part of “New Spain” which consisted of the Louisiana and the continental North America west of the Mississippi River, “to the arctic snows”; and what is now Mexico and Central America.
- England claimed the 13 American colonies, parts of Canada, Bermuda, The Bahamas, Jamaica, Florida and West Florida, including some military positions on the east bank of the Mississippi River as far north as Natchez (now in Mississippi).
- England and Spain were traditional enemies, since at least 1588 when the British fleet under Lord Nelson and Admiral Sir Robert Cross defeated the Spanish Armada and the following year when British Admiral Cross captured the port of Cádiz.
- Spain lost Florida to England after “The Seven Years War”, which took place between 1756-1763, was a global conflict that spanned five continents. In America this war was known as the “French and Indian War”. The French and Indian war was ended by a treaty signed 1763 known as the “Treaty of Paris (of 1763)” and it resulted in the following:
- Spain regained Havana, Cuba which had been captured by the British.
- Britain obtained Spanish West Florida with Pensacola at its capital. West Florida included about two-thirds of what is now known as the Florida Panhandle along with the southern part of what is now Mississippi and Alabama.
What were Spain’s Contributions to our Independence
- Spain provided funding to the American effort in the form of gold, silver, diamonds and Spanish currency. This was critical to the war effort. It is not an understatement to say that the outcome for our fight for independence would have been quite different without the funding that Spain provided.
- Along with the French Navy, Spain constantly harassed British ships at sea and routinely sailed into British home waters. This had the effect of “freezing” British forces in place as they might be needed if the actions turned hostile. The need to defend the homeland and the vast British empire kept a significant number of British forces and supplies away from America.
- The King of Spain asked all people under his rule to “donate” to the American cause and monthly collections were held around the world. The Mission San Diego al Alcala was involved in this effort along with all Spanish Missions in California.
- Spain shipped vast quantities of arms and ammunition to the Americans. The Continental Army and patriot militia units were in dire need of supplies throughout much of the war. Without the steady supply from Spain and France the Americans would not have been able to carry out as many military operations as they did.
- In addition to munitions, Spain provided clothing, food, footwear and raw materials as well as cash and credit on a regular basis.
- The Spanish Governor of West Louisiana, Bernardo de Gálvez, organized a military expedition from New Orleans up the Mississippi River to St. Louis and beyond. Their attacks and those they supplied on British installations drove the British from the Mississippi and Ohio River areas. This helped break the British plan to encircle the colonies and disrupt the French and Spanish supplies that were arriving in New Orleans and transported into the colonies.
- The forces Gálvez assembled consisted of regular Spanish soldiers and sailors, newly arrived recruits from Mexico and the Canary Islands, an assortment of Cubans, Dominicans, Puerto Ricans, free blacks, native Americans and other volunteers. As their efforts increased so did the size of Spanish forces in American.
- Gálvez undertook direct military actions by capturing the ports of Mobile and Pensacola which the British were using to supply their forces in their “Southern and Western Campaigns”. These actions were made by Spanish Navy ships, sailors and soldiers and Gálvez’s recruits along with land based Spanish and American forces.
- For the final major battle of the war at Yorktown, Virginia, where British General Cornwallis surrendered his forces, Spain played three pivotal roles:
- The first was providing the French Navy (and American forces) with money to continue. Both the American and French forces had not been paid in months and many were unwilling to continue the fight. Spain’s last-minute infusion of cash changed that.
- The second was that Spain sent their naval fleet to guard Caribbean Islands held by France. With Spain guarding their territory, the French fleet was free to assemble and sail an overwhelming force into Chesapeake Bay. This set the stage stage for a decisive Naval battle with the British Navy. With the larger fleet the French and American ships soundly defeated the British Navy.
- With the British Navy no longer a threat, the French sailed into the Yorktown area and participated in attacks on Cornwallis’s forces along with the American Continental Army which had marched from New York and attacked Yorktown from land. This effectively trapped Cornwallis on the small peninsula with no way out and no hope of supplies or fresh troops. He eventually was forced to surrender.
This was the last major battle of the Revolutionary War.
Timeline of Significant Actions
“The enemy of my enemy is my friend” sums up a significant reason that prompted Spain to side with the Americans. Spain had been entangled in regular conflicts and wars with England for a very long time prior to the American Revolution. Their immediate concern was driven by a desire to regain the land it had lost to Britain in prior wars and with other European powers to make incremental gains against British possessions in other parts of the world. A war in the new world would commit a significant amount of British military assets thus weaking their forces in other conflicts such as Minorca and Gibraltar.
Both France and Spain had declared their neutrality in the British actions in America however they wanted British forces engaged in conflict in America, therefore felt they could only provide support in secret.
In addition, Spain did not want to engage in more military conflict with England as they were at war with Portugal in South America during 1776 and 1777 and did not believe their military forces could take on another conflict until they had time to rebuild after that war ended. There were other reasons such as Spain’s concern that supporting the American Revolution might prompt similar revolutions in their colonies.
Spain and France agreed in early 1776 on a plan for giving secret assistance to the American colonies. They agreed that to ensure the secrecy of their support that they would create a shell corporation, “Roderique Hortelez et Cie”, that would be used to transport money and military supplies to the Americans that were provided by Spain and France.
- 1771, the Spanish “Escudo” gold half-dollar was in widespread use in the colonies and was considered America’s first viable “legal-tender” in circulation. The American “Continental Dollar” was in circulation at that time however it was not widely accepted.
- 1774, Spanish merchants began shipping supplies to the American colonist.
- 1776, France created a shell corporation, “Roderique Hortelez et Cie”, managed by Pierre Beaumarchais, to launder money and supplies for the American rebels. France contributed 270,000 pesos to start the company in June, Spain matched their contribution in August.
- 1776, King Carlos III of Spain issued a royal order to the governors of Louisiana and Cuba to open Spanish ports in the New World to American merchant vessels. This order allowed American ships to sell their goods at those ports as well as load cargo bound for America which they had been barred from prior to that decree.
- 1776, the first Spanish ship loaded with military supplies arrived in New Orleans.
- 1776, another Spanish ship docked in New Orleans. Aboard was Bernardo de Gálvez, the new governor of Louisiana arrived in New Orleans along with 9,000 pounds of gunpowder. He began organizing a military force. He covertly sent supplies from New Orleans up the Mississippi River to assist the Americans and he also sent supplies to George Washington’s Continental Army. New Orleans became a major supply hub for the Americans.
- 1777, Congress sent Arthur Lee to Madrid. Spain was worried about accepting a diplomat from America as they were still entangled in a war with Portugal and did want to provoke the British. The Spanish ordered that Lee was to be intercepted before he could reach Madrid. Diego Gardoqui, a Basque merchant, met with Lee at Burgos in Northern Spain. Lee was insistent about going to Madrid, and Gardoqui warned him that if he did, it would force Spain to cease the secret assistance to the Americans. Lee was told that Spain was stockpiling gunpowder and clothing in New Orleans and Havana to be sent to the Americans. Spain also offered to approach Holland about extending credit to the United States. Lee agreed to keep everything secret.
Gardoqui also helped raise funds and supplies for the Americans, and used his company, Gardoqui and Sons, as a cover for funneling Spanish aid to the Americans. Between 1777 and 1782, Gardoqui raised 406,000 pesos for the American war effort.
1777, (April) Spain agreed to an additional 75,000 pesos (about $2.5 million) of assistance.
1777, (October) one of the turning points in the war occurred when the Americans defeated British General Burgoyne at Saratoga. The American victory convinced the French that the Americans were able to hold their own in the war, and the French believed that this was the optimal time to enter the war against their ancient foe.
- 1778, Gálvez secretly supplied and bankrolled George Rogers Clark’s band of frontiersmen, who are best known for the captures of Kaskaskia (1778) and Vincennes (1779) during the Illinois Campaign. Clark’s actions helped deny the northern Mississippi and Ohio River areas to the British.
- 1778, France and the United States signed the “Franco-American Treaty of Amity and Commerce”, and the “Treaty of Alliance”. The treaties recognized American independence and required neither party could make peace without the consent of the other. Spain continued its official neutrality while secretly supporting the American cause. Spain was hoping to see Britain continue to weaken while Spain grew stronger and more prepared during this time. Spain was also concerned about provoking a wider European war by appearing to be an aggressor.
- 1779, Spain declared war on Britain under the terms of the Franco-American treaty with France. France agreed to not sign a peace treaty until Spain recovered Gibraltar, and Britain recognized the independence of United States. The combined Franco-Spanish navies gave the allies numerical superiority over the British Navy.
- 1779, Spanish and French forces began the siege of Gibraltar, which lasted until the end of the war.
- 1779, Bernardo de Gálvez launched an attack on Baton Rouge and Natchez on the east side of the Mississippi and captured them in September 1779. Expeditionary forces continued up the Mississippi River to present day St. Louis defeating British forces along the way.
- 1780, Gálvez moved his naval forces out of New Orleans and into the Gulf of Mexico. His forces captured the British fort at Mobile in March 1780. Bernardo de Gálvez was promoted to field marshal and was given command of Spanish forces in the American theater.
- 1780, (April) Spain sent a fleet from Cádiz (Spain) to reinforce General Gálvez.
- 1780, the British sent a large fleet of 63 ships to the West Indies with soldiers and armaments. The fleet was lightly defended and was surprised by a Franco-Spanish fleet led by Lt. General Luis de Córdoba. The British fleet was captured and brought to Cádiz, resulting in a loss to Britain of 1.5 million pounds sterling.
- 1780, (August), King Carlos III issued a royal order calling on his subjects in the Americas to voluntarily donate 1 peso per Indian and 2 pesos per Spaniard to the war effort. A request such as this was in reality a royal order. Spanish subjects in the future states of California, Arizona, New Mexico and Texas, as well as the rest of the Spanish empire in the Americas made the donation.
Father Junípero Serra in Alta California collected the donativo from the missions and used church funds to pay it for those who were unable to pay. The King also asked the church in Spain to donate or loan money for the war effort. The cathedrals of Toledo and Malaga, and perhaps others, gave money to the King for the war.
1781, General Gálvez besieged Pensacola in West Florida. His substantial fleet sailed from Havana and sailed into a hurricane that caused significant damage to his ships. He paused to repair and resupply and then continued to the British fortifications at Pensacola. Two months later the British surrendered the town.
By sweeping the British from the Mississippi and the northern Gulf Coast, Gálvez prevented the British from encircling the Americans and attacking from the west.
- 1781, (August through November), the Spanish Fleet sailed into the Caribbean to guard the French West Indies, permitting French Admiral de Grasse to take his entire fleet to Yorktown. When the fleet arrived at Havana, the 1 million pesos promised by the government of New Spain for the supplies and Continental Army payroll had not yet arrived. Francisco Miranda raised 500,000 pesos in six hours from the people of Havana and delivered it to the French frigate Aygrette off the coast of Cuba. The fleet then sailed into the Chesapeake Bay.
- 1781, Admiral de Grasse defeated the British relief fleet of Sir Thomas Graves in the Chesapeake Bay in what was likely the most decisive naval battle of the war. The remaining British fleet withdrew. This action prevented the escape of Lord Cornwallis by sea.
- 1781, (October) British military commander, Lord Cornwallis, was forced to surrender his army at Yorktown. This was the last major military action of the Revolutionary War.
- 1782, (May) Manuel de Cagigal led an attack on the Bahamas, and succeeded in recapturing the islands for Spain without a fight. This was in violation of the orders of Bernardo de Gálvez, and the action forced Gálvez to abandon the Franco-Spanish invasion of Jamaica due to insufficient forces.
1776-1783, during this period there were at least 17,000 Spanish soldiers, sailors and militia that served on American soil for our independence. This count comes from archival copies of paymaster rolls and ships logs found in Spanish archives. The amount of funding provided by Spain is estimated to be about $20 billion in 2021 dollars.
- 1783, there was an armistice leading to the “Treaty of Paris of 1783”, in which Great Britain recognized the independence of the United States. Britain signed separate peace treaties with Spain, France and Holland. Spain recovered West Florida, East Florida, and Menorca, while surrendering the Bahamas and allowing British enclaves on the Belize River in Central America – later to become British Honduras.
- 1792, Congress passes “Coinage Act of 1792” which begins the slow replacement of Spanish currency in the United States with U.S. minted currency.
- 1793, The first United States coins were minted.
- 1857, The “Coinage Act of 1857” ended the use of all foreign currency in the United States.
- 2014, (December 4). A joint resolution by the Congress of the United States bestowed on Bernardo de Gálvez honorary citizenship. With his inclusion there have only been eight other people that have had this honor. They include;
- Sir Winston Churchill.
- William and Hanna Penn who were instrumental in the formation of Pennsylvania.
- Raoul Wallenberg, a Swedish diplomat who rescued Jews from the Holocaust.
- Mother Theresa, found of the Missionaries of Charity of Calcutta.
- Gilbert du Motier Marquies de Lafayette, French officer who assisted in the Revolutionary War.
- Cassamir Pulaski, Polish officer who assisted in the Revolutionary War.
- Present Day, The Sons and Daughters of the American Revolution accept membership from those that can document they are a direct descendant of person who came with a military force of a foreign nation to contribute to the war effort. This includes Spain and France.
- For this document we relied heavily on the book Gálvez, Spain-Our Forgotten Ally in the American Revolutionary War: A Concise Summary of Spain’s Assistance: 2014, Southwest Historic Press. Authored by Judge Ed Butler who has published on topics including history, genealogical and legal procedures. Rather that interpreting information in older publications, this book was primarily sourced from original documents found in archives in the United States, England, Spain, Portugal and France. With extensive research over a period of years the author was able to correct erroneous interpretations made by other writers and develop a more complete understanding of Spain’s contributions to our independence. The book is extensively footnoted and contains a lengthy bibliography along with images of original documents. Many other sources provide similar information and timelines however this resource has very little editorial content. It is available at Amazon in paperback, both new and used copies are available.
- Listing of Spanish military units that participated in the American Revolution: https://www.americanwars.org/american-revolution-organizations-spanish-regiments.htm
- Researching the American Revolution” website contains an extensive listing of research references. Spain is missing from their categories however it can be found at: https://researchingtheamericanrevolution.com/spain
- A similar document to the above but with illustrations and more of a narrative form can be found on the Sons of the American Revolution website link of: https://www.sar.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Spain-in-the-American-Revolution-by-Stephen-Renouf.pdf
- A recent addition to the National SAR website on Spains role along with links of interest can be found here.
- The claim that Spain raised 500,000 pesos in Havana in 24 hours for the coming battle at Yorktown is supported in this book: Dull, Jonathan R. (1975). The French Navy and American Independence: A Study of Arms and Diplomacy, 1774–1787. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Page 245.
- Treaty of Paris (1763) contains the transcribed text of the treaty.
- Franco-American Treaty of Amity and Commerce (1778) contains the transcribed text of the treaty.
- Treaty of Alliance (1778) teaching document source.
- Treaty of Paris (1783) teaching document source.
- The “Gálvez Monument” and “Project” in Pensacola.
- The Gulf South during the Revolutionary War.
- The Journal of the American Revolution is an excellent source for articles and book reviews. They offer a “Teachers Guide” that contains an extensive list of videos, articles and references. click here.
- Spanish Soldiers, from the South Coast Chapter of SAR in Orange County contains links to list of soldiers at presidios in the New Spain during the war. This is an excellent resource.Simple internet searches using “Spanish Involvement in the American Revolution” will reveal many more links of interest.
- Somos Primos (“We are Cousins”) Website dedicated to past and present articles, events and information concerning Hispanic heritage issues.
- Excellent “explainer” video on the role of Spain in our fight for independence.
- Bankrolling the Battle of Yorktown. A very detailed article from the HistoryNet website on how Spain provided the funding for the Battle of Yorktown, the last major battle of the war.
Below are links to some fascinating connections San Diego has to the Spanish involvement in the American Revolution. The first link has a historical document and translation of an order by the King of Spain for his subjects (and Missions) to support the war effort along with information on SAR plaque installations.
A zip file containing a Microsoft Word version of this information along with images and other documents on the role of Spain in the Revolutionary War is available from our website.
Click here for the packet contents list and download link
The Sons of the American Revolution exists to support patriotic, historical and educational programs and to unite and promote fellowship among the descendants of those that fought and sacrificed to achieve the independence required to institute a free and independent government. Our members are direct descendants of patriots that fought for our independence.
We believe it is our responsibility to bring public awareness of how we became this free nation and understand that it did not come without cost. If our country is to remain a leader of the free world, it is very important that we truly remember and honor our history.
We are not a political organization; our programs and presentations are focused on the Revolutionary War era.
This document was created by members of the San Diego Chapter of the Sons of the American Revolution and is part of our educational programs. Our inspiration for the research effort and creating this document and other related materials comes our interaction with our community.
Each July 4th weekend our Chapter host an information table at the House of Spain in Balboa Park and during that time we often hear “why have I never heard of this” and quite often the voice is that of a teacher. Hopefully material such as this will help fill in the gap in our knowledge of the actions of all countries and people that contributed to our independence.